JSSS Journal of Sensors and Sensor Systems JSSS J. Sens. Sens. Syst. 2194-878X Copernicus Publications Göttingen, Germany 10.5194/jsss-2-85-2013 Figures of merit of thermoelectric and bolometric thermal radiation sensors Dillner U. 1 Kessler E. 1 Meyer H.-G. 1 Institute of Photonic Technology, Albert-Einstein-Str. 9, 07745 Jena, Germany 21 06 2013 2 1 85 94 Copyright: © 2013 U. Dillner et al. 2013 This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. To view a copy of this licence, visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ This article is available from https://jsss.copernicus.org/articles/2/85/2013/jsss-2-85-2013.html The full text article is available as a PDF file from https://jsss.copernicus.org/articles/2/85/2013/jsss-2-85-2013.pdf

Figures of merit condensing the performance parameters of radiation sensors such as responsivity, noise equivalent power, and time constant in a single number can be useful for rating the performance of a particular sensor in comparison to other ones or to fundamental performance limits. The classification system and the figures of merit of radiation sensors introduced by R. C. Jones are revisited for thermal radiation sensors with the focus on thermopiles and bolometers. As a result it is stated that radiation thermopiles and bolometers should be classified differently: type III detectors for thermopiles vs. type II detectors for bolometers. Modified figures of merit are suggested and relations between them given. The figures of merit are applied in an overview on state-of-the-art thermopiles and bolometers operated at room temperature.

 References Budzier, H. and Gerlach, G.: Thermal infrared sensors, Wiley, Chichester, 2011. Chen, C.-N.: Fully quantitative characterization of CMOS-MEMS polysilicon/titanium thermopile infrared sensors, Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem., 161, 892–900, 2012. Dillner, U., Baier, V., Kessler, E., Müller, J., Berger, A., Behrendt, D., and Preller, H.-A.: A high sensitivity single-chip 4-element thermoelectric infrared sensor, in: Proceedings of the 8th International Conference for Infrared Sensors and Systems, Nuremberg, Germany, 25–27 May 2004, 149–153, 2004. Dillner, U., Kessler, E., Baier, V., Berger, A., Eick, T., Behrendt, D., and Urban, H.: A 64-pixel linear thermopile array chip designed for vacuum environment, Proceedings of the 9th International Conference for Infrared Sensors and Systems, Nuremberg, Germany, 30 May–1 June 2006, 295–300, 2006. Dong, L., Yue, R.-F., and Liu, L.-T.: An uncooled microbolometer infrared detector based on polycrystalline silicon germanium thin film, Int. J. Nonlin. Sci. Num., 3, 303–306, 2002. Foote, M.&nbsp;C., Jones, E.&nbsp;W., and Caillat, T.: Uncooled thermopile infrared detector linear arrays with detectivity greater than 10<sup>9</sup> cmHz$^{1/2}$/W, IEEE T. Electron Dev., 1896–1902, 1998. Foote, M.&nbsp;C., Kenyon, M., Krueger, T.&nbsp;R., McCann, T.&nbsp;A., Chacon, R., Jones, E.&nbsp;W., Dickie, M.&nbsp;R., Schofield, J.&nbsp;T., McCleese, D.&nbsp;J., Gaalema, S., and Hu, W.: Thermopile detector arrays for space science applications, Proceedings of the International Workshop on Thermal Detectors for Space Based Planetary, Solar, and Earth Science Applications, Adelphi, USA, 19–20 June 2003, 2, 16–20, 2003. Graf, A., Arndt, M., Sauer, M., and Gerlach, G.: Review of micromachined thermopiles for infrared detection, Meas. Sci. Technol., 18, R59–R75, 2007. Haenschke, F., Kessler, E., Dillner, U., Ihring, A., Schinkel, U., and Meyer, H.-G.: New high detectivity linear array for analytical measurement in the room temperature range, Proceedings of SPIE 8353, Infrared Technology and Applications XXXVIII, Baltimore, USA, 23–27 April 2012, 83531L1-6, 2012. Havens, R.: Theoretical comparison of heat detectors, J. Opt. Soc. Am., 36, p. 355, 1946. Hirota, M., Nakajima, Y., Saito, M., and Uchiyama, M.: $120\times 90$ element thermoelectric infrared focal plane array with precisely patterned Au-black absorber, Sensor. Actuat. A-Phys., 135, 146–151, 2007. Jones R.&nbsp;C.: The ultimate sensitivity of radiation detectors, J. Opt. Soc. Am., 37, 879–890, 1947. Jones R.&nbsp;C.: A new classification system for radiation detectors, J. Opt. Soc. Am., 39, 327–343, 1949a. Jones, R.&nbsp;C.: Factors of merit for radiation detectors, J. Opt. Soc. Am., 39, 344–356, 1949b. Jones, R.&nbsp;C.: Method of rating the performance of photoconductive cells, Proc. IRIS, 2, 9–12, 1957. Karanth, S., Sumesh, M.&nbsp;A., Shobha, V., Ganesh&nbsp;Shanbhogue, H., and Nagendra, C.&nbsp;L.: Infrared detectors based on thin film thermistor of ternary Mn-Ni-Co-O on micro-machined thermal isolation structure, Sensor. Actuat. A-Phys., 153, 69–75, 2009. Kumar, S. and Butler, D.&nbsp;P.: Infrared sensing with self-supporting YBCO uncooled IR microbolometer array integrated with on-chip CCBDI readout circuit, IEEE Sens. J., 9, 411–418, 2009. Lahiji, G.&nbsp;R. and Wise, K.&nbsp;D.: A batch-fabricated silicon thermopile infrared detector, IEEE T. Electron Dev., 29, 14–22, 1982. Lenggenhager, R., Baltes, H., and Elbel, T.: Thermoelectric infrared sensors in CMOS technology, Sensor. Actuat. A-Phys., 37–38, 216–220, 1993. Liu, X.-M., Fang, H.-J., and Liu, L.-T.: Study on new structure uncooled a-Si microbolometer for infrared detection, Microelectron. J., 38, 735–739, 2007. Mather, J.&nbsp;C.: Bolometer noise: nonequilibrium theory, Appl. Optics, 21, 1125–1129, 1982. Müller, J.&nbsp;E., Kessler, E., Dillner, U., Ratz, P., Stock, K.&nbsp;D., and Metzdorf, J.: Large sized high sensitive thin-film thermopile as radiometric detector standard, Proceedings of the Symposium on Microtechnology in Metrology and Metrology in Microsystems, Delft, The Netherlands, 31 August–1 September 2000, 147–148, 2000. Nolas, G.&nbsp;S., Sharp, J., and Goldsmid, H.&nbsp;J.: Thermoelectrics – basic principles and new materials developments, Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg and New~York, 2001. Radford, W., Wyles, R., Wyles, J., Varesi, J., Ray, M., Murphy, D., Kennedy, A., Finch, A., Moody, E., Cheung, F., Coda, R., and Baur, S.: Sensitivity improvements in uncooled microbolometer FPAs, Report approved for public release, Raytheon Infrared Center of Excellence, Goleta, <a href="www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a399216.pdf">www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a399216.pdf</a>, 1998. Richards, P. L.: Bolometers for infrared and millimeter waves, J. Appl. Phys., 76, 1–24, 1994. Sarro, P.&nbsp;M., Yashiro, H., van Herwaarden, A.&nbsp;W., and Middelhoek, S.: An integrated thermal infrared sensing array, Sensor. Actuator., 14, 191–201, 1988. Saxena, R.&nbsp;S., Bhan, R.&nbsp;K., Jalwania, C.&nbsp;R., Rana, P.&nbsp;S., and Lomash, S.&nbsp;K.: Characterization of area arrays of microbolometer-based un-cooled IR detectors without using ROIC, Sensor. Actuat. A-Phys., 141, 359–366, 2008. Schieferdecker, J., Quad, R., Holzenkämpfer, E., and Schulze, M.: Infrared thermopile sensors with high sensitivity and very low temperature coefficient, Sensor. Actuat. A-Phys., 46–47, 422–427, 1995. Schnelle, W., Dillner, U., Scheike, B., and Albrecht, L.: Infrared radiation sensors based on thin film bolometers, Proceedings of the 2nd Symposium on Temperature Measurement in Industry and Science, Suhl, Germany, 16–18 October 1984, 195–204, 1984. Smith, R.&nbsp;A., Jones, F.&nbsp;E., and Chasmar, R.&nbsp;P.: The detection and measurement of infra-red radiation, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1968. Tanaka, A., Matsumoto, S., Tsukamoto, N., Itoh, S., Chiba, K., Endoh, T., Nakazato, A., Okuyama, K., Kumazawa, Y., Hijikawa, M., Gotoh, H., Tanaka, T., and Teranishi, N.: Infrared focal plane array incorporating silicon IC process compatible bolometer, IEEE T. Electron Dev., 43, 1844–1850, 1996. Tissot, J.&nbsp;L., Trouilleau, C., Fieque, B., Crastes, A., and Legras, O.: Uncooled microbolometer detector recent developments at Ulis, Proceedings of SPIE 5957, Infrared Photoelectronics, Warsaw, Poland, 30–31 August 2005, 59570M1-12, 2005. Tissot, J.&nbsp;L., Durand, A., Garret, T., Minassian, C., Robert, P., Tinnes, S., and Vilain, M.: High performance uncooled amorphous silicon VGA IRFPA with 17 μm pixel-pitch, Proceedings of SPIE 7660, Infrared Technology and Applications XXXVI, Orlando, USA, 5–9 April 2010, 76600T1-7, 2010. van Herwaarden, A.&nbsp;W. and van Oudheusden, B.: Thermal sensors, edited by: Meijer, G.~C.~M. and van Herwaarden, A.~W., Institute of Physics Publishing, Bristol and Philadelphia, 1994. Venkatasubramanian, R., Siivola, E., Colpitts, T., and O'Quinn, B.: Thin-film thermoelectric devices with high room-temperature figures of merit, Nature, 413, 597–602, 2001. Vera-Reveles, G., Simmons, T.&nbsp;J., Bravo-Sánchez, M., Vidal, M.&nbsp;A., Navarro-Contreras, H., and González, J.: High-sensitivity bolometers from self-oriented single-walled carbon nanotube composites, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, 3, 3200–3204, 2011. Völklein, F., Wiegand, A., and Baier, V.: High-sensitivity radiation thermopiles made of Bi-Sb-Te films, Sensor. Actuat. A-Phys., 29, 87–91, 1991. Wang, K., Xue, C., Liang, T., Jiao, B., Zhang, W., Chen, D., and Xiong, J.: Thermopile infrared detector with detectivity greater than 10<sup>8</sup> cmHz$^{1/2}$/W, J. Infrared Millim. Te., 31, 810–820, 2010. Wang, L.-X. and Li, X.-A.: Preparation of VO<sub>2</sub> microbolometer for CO<sub>2</sub> gas detection, Proceedings of the 2010 International Conference on Microwave and Millimeter Wave Technology, Chengdu, China, 8–11 May 2010, 1774–1777, 2010. Wood, R. A.: Uncooled thermal imaging with monolithic silicon focal planes, Proceedings of SPIE 2020, Infrared Technology XIX, San Diego, USA, 11 July 1993, 322–329, 1993. Yue, R.-F., Dong, L., and Liu, L.-T.: Integrated a-Si:B microbolometer arrays based on improved porous silicon micromachining techniques, Chinese Phys. Lett., 23, 1331–1334, 2006. Zintu, D., Tosone, G., and Mercuri, A.: Dual ion beam sputtering vanadium dioxide microbolometers by surface micromachining, Infrared Phys. Techn., 43, 245–250, 2002.