Articles | Volume 7, issue 1
https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-7-161-2018
© Author(s) 2018. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Special issue:
https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-7-161-2018
© Author(s) 2018. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Regular research article
| 
22 Mar 2018
Regular research article |
| 22 Mar 2018
| 22 Mar 2018
In situ high-temperature gas sensors: continuous monitoring of the combustion quality of different wood combustion systems and optimization of combustion process
Heinz Kohler
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Institute for Sensor and Information Systems (ISIS), Hochschule
Karlsruhe – Technik und Wirtschaft, Moltkestr. 30, 76133 Karlsruhe,
Germany
Binayak Ojha
Institute for Sensor and Information Systems (ISIS), Hochschule
Karlsruhe – Technik und Wirtschaft, Moltkestr. 30, 76133 Karlsruhe,
Germany
Navas Illyaskutty
Institute for Sensor and Information Systems (ISIS), Hochschule
Karlsruhe – Technik und Wirtschaft, Moltkestr. 30, 76133 Karlsruhe,
Germany
Ingo Hartmann
DBFZ Deutsches Biomasseforschungszentrum gemeinnützige GmbH,
Torgauer Straße 116, 04347 Leipzig, Germany
Christian Thiel
DBFZ Deutsches Biomasseforschungszentrum gemeinnützige GmbH,
Torgauer Straße 116, 04347 Leipzig, Germany
Konrad Eisinger
DBFZ Deutsches Biomasseforschungszentrum gemeinnützige GmbH,
Torgauer Straße 116, 04347 Leipzig, Germany
Markus Dambacher
Sick AG, Erwin-Sick-Straße 1, 79183 Waldkirch, Germany
Related authors
Binayak Ojha, Navas Illyaskutty, Jens Knoblauch, Muthu Raman Balachandran, and Heinz Kohler
J. Sens. Sens. Syst., 6, 237–246, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-6-237-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-6-237-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
A novel combustion airstream control concept has been developed based on in situ sensors for combustion temperature, residual oxygen concentration and residual un-combusted CO / HC components. The implementation of this control concept allows for a large reduction in toxic gas emissions by up to 80 % compared to hand-operated furnaces. A stable long-term CO / HC sensor for such an application is not available; thus, the long-term sensor signal stability of different CO / HC sensors is studied.
Binayak Ojha, Navas Illyaskutty, Jens Knoblauch, Muthu Raman Balachandran, and Heinz Kohler
J. Sens. Sens. Syst., 6, 237–246, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-6-237-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-6-237-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
A novel combustion airstream control concept has been developed based on in situ sensors for combustion temperature, residual oxygen concentration and residual un-combusted CO / HC components. The implementation of this control concept allows for a large reduction in toxic gas emissions by up to 80 % compared to hand-operated furnaces. A stable long-term CO / HC sensor for such an application is not available; thus, the long-term sensor signal stability of different CO / HC sensors is studied.
Related subject area
Sensor technologies: Characterization and testing
Methods to investigate the temperature distribution of heated ceramic gas sensors for high-temperature applications
Gauge to simultaneously determine the electrical conductivity, the Hall constant, and the Seebeck coefficient up to 800 °C
Precise characterization of VCSEL in the 1550 nm band having a wavelength tuning range of 12 nm within 10 µs as light sources for fast sensor systems
An algorithmic method for the identification of wood species and the classification of post-consumer wood using fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy
High-temperature behavior of housed piezoelectric resonators based on CTGS
Investigation of a metrological atomic force microscope system with a combined cantilever position, bending and torsion detection system
Novel, low-cost device to simultaneously measure the electrical conductivity and the Hall coefficient from room temperature up to 600 °C
Random gas mixtures for efficient gas sensor calibration
Characterization of ceramics based on laser speckle photometry
Optimization of soot deposition by high-temperature prepolarization of a resistive particulate matter sensor
Comparison of different fiber coatings for distributed strain measurement in cementitious matrices
Measurement of the Beruforge 152DL thin-film lubricant using a developed thin-film thickness standard
Analysis and optimization of a cone flowmeter performance by means of a numerical and experimental approach
Dynamic characterization of multi-component sensors for force and moment
Field evaluation of a low-cost indoor air quality monitor to quantify exposure to pollutants in residential environments
Transferable micromachined piezoresistive force sensor with integrated double-meander-spring system
Oxygen transport in epitaxial SrTiO3/SrTi1 − xFexO3 multilayer stacks
Fibre optic sensing system for monitoring of current collectors and overhead contact lines of railways
Optimization of a sensor for a Tian–Calvet calorimeter with LTCC-based sensor discs
Characterisation of the polarisation state of embedded piezoelectric transducers by thermal waves and thermal pulses
Investigation of dielectric properties of multilayer structures consisting of homogeneous plastics and liquid solutions at 75–110 GHz
A systematic MEMS sensor calibration framework
Monitoring human serum albumin cell cultures using surface plasmon resonance (SPR) spectroscopy
Alternative strategy for manufacturing of all-solid-state reference electrodes for potentiometry
Carbon monoxide gas sensing properties of Ga-doped ZnO film grown by ion plating with DC arc discharge
Humidity measurement with capacitive humidity sensors between −70°C and 25°C in low vacuum
Fabrication and characterization of a piezoresistive humidity sensor with a stress-free package
Validation and application of a cryogenic vacuum extraction system for soil and plant water extraction for isotope analysis
Thomas Wöhrl, Julia Herrmann, Jaroslaw Kita, Ralf Moos, and Gunter Hagen
J. Sens. Sens. Syst., 12, 205–214, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-12-205-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-12-205-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Sensors for detecting various gases, such as nitrogen oxides, play a major role in times of climate change in protecting the environment from the possible toxic influences of such gases. Due to their usually complex design, gas sensors may react to changes in the operating temperature, which can occur due to different ambient influences. This article shows two methods for accurately measuring the temperature on the surface of a sensor under realistic conditions.
Robin Werner, Jaroslaw Kita, Michael Gollner, Florian Linseis, and Ralf Moos
J. Sens. Sens. Syst., 12, 69–84, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-12-69-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-12-69-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
A high-temperature gauge to simultaneously determine electrical conductivity, the Hall constant, and the Seebeck coefficient was developed. Screen-printed heating structures on a ceramic sample holder generate temperatures up to 800 °C. Heating structures were designed using FEM simulations. The temperature distribution was validated by thermal imaging. Measurements on constantan (reference material) and boron-doped silicon wafer confirm the functionality of the gauge up to 800 °C.
Roman Kruglov, Gregor Saur, and Rainer Engelbrecht
J. Sens. Sens. Syst., 11, 161–169, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-11-161-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-11-161-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Gas analysis by absorption spectroscopy helps to optimize combustion processes in engines. Optical distance sensors are non-contact and offer high accuracy and precision. Both sensor applications benefit from light sources with a rapidly swept wavelength to monitor dynamic processes. In our paper, we precisely characterize the dynamic wavelength sweep of a rapidly pulsed VCSEL (vertical cavity surface emitting laser), a tiny semiconductor laser well suited for optical sensing.
Nina Leiter, Maximilian Wohlschläger, Martin Versen, and Christian Laforsch
J. Sens. Sens. Syst., 11, 129–136, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-11-129-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-11-129-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
In this contribution the frequency domain fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FD-FLIM) technique is evaluated for post-consumer wood sorting. The measured data were processed using algorithmic decision trees to identify the wood species and post-consumer wood category. The experimental results revealed the high potential of the FD-FLIM technique for automated post-consumer wood sorting.
Michal Schulz, Rezvan Ghanavati, Fabian Kohler, Jürgen Wilde, and Holger Fritze
J. Sens. Sens. Syst., 10, 271–279, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-10-271-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-10-271-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Temperature sensors based on piezoelectric devices enable precise measurement of temperature changes in harsh environments such as high temperatures or aggressive atmospheres. In the case of this device, the change in the temperature is detected by means of the changing resonance frequency of the sensor. Here a sensor device based on catangasite (an isomorph of quartz) is presented. We discuss its behavior at elevated temperatures and confirm that it can successfully operate up to 1030 °C.
Yiting Wu, Elisa Wirthmann, Ute Klöpzig, and Tino Hausotte
J. Sens. Sens. Syst., 10, 171–177, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-10-171-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-10-171-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
A new metrological atomic force microscope (MAFM) head design is shown. We investigated the MAFM head in the nanomeasuring machine (NMM-1) for different high-precision and large-scale traceable measurement tasks. Due to their integration, the MAFM head can benefit from the large measuring range, high-precision and traceability of the NMM-1 for efficient measurements on different samples. The presented results show the realised macroscale measurements with sub-nanometre resolution.
Robin Werner, Jaroslaw Kita, Michael Gollner, Florian Linseis, and Ralf Moos
J. Sens. Sens. Syst., 10, 71–81, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-10-71-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-10-71-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
A novel, low-cost measurement device for simultaneous high temperature measurements of the electrical conductivity and Hall coefficient has been developed. Simulations were used to design a suitable screen-printed planar platinum heating structure that generates temperatures of up to 600 °C. Simulations of the temperature distribution have been validated using thermal imaging. Measurements were compared with data from the literature to validate the functionality of the novel device.
Tobias Baur, Manuel Bastuck, Caroline Schultealbert, Tilman Sauerwald, and Andreas Schütze
J. Sens. Sens. Syst., 9, 411–424, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-9-411-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-9-411-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Applications like air quality, fire detection and detection of explosives require selective and quantitative measurements in an ever-changing background of interfering gases. One main issue hindering the successful implementation of gas sensors in real-world applications is the lack of appropriate calibration procedures for advanced gas sensor systems. This article presents a calibration scheme for gas sensors based on gas profiles with unique randomized gas mixtures.
Lili Chen, Ulana Cikalova, Beatrice Bendjus, Stefan Muench, and Mike Roellig
J. Sens. Sens. Syst., 9, 345–354, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-9-345-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-9-345-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
This paper describes an optical sensor system based on the technique of laser speckle photometry (LSP) for the application of stress characterization and defect detection in ceramics. The purpose of the research is to develop an in-line inspection solution for the industrial field. The preliminary results show that the LSP technique has the potential to fulfill the task.
Jens Ebel, Carolin Schilling, and Holger Fritze
J. Sens. Sens. Syst., 9, 263–271, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-9-263-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-9-263-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
In a very specific way, this research paper shows how established systems – in this case a commercial soot sensor for the automotive sector – can be optimized by diving deep into the basic research. The approach here is to link macroscopic observations or signal behavior with processes taking place on the atomic level. Taking these fundamental processes into account, the sensor's specific response time could be shortened effectively by a change in operating strategy – without any design changes.
Martin Weisbrich, Klaus Holschemacher, and Thomas Bier
J. Sens. Sens. Syst., 9, 189–197, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-9-189-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-9-189-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Distributed fiber optic strain measurement based on Rayleigh scattering enables the monitoring of strain along the entire fiber length and the possibility of integration into material matrices. In this article, optical fibers were integrated into the concrete matrix of small prisms to measure the deformation by drying. In comparison with a reference measuring method, the losses of strain transfer were measured. The analysis shows a high correlation between the reference method and the fiber.
Sebastian Metzner, Tamara Reuter, and Tino Hausotte
J. Sens. Sens. Syst., 9, 157–165, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-9-157-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-9-157-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
For the determination of the refractive index of the lubricant used in the sheet-bulk metal forming process, a lubricant thin-film thickness standard was developed which represents a continuous measuring range from 6 to 100 μm. To determine the refractive index, the thin-film thickness standard was measured with a coaxial interferometric measurement system in various thickness ranges. The results show changing optical properties with increasing layer thickness.
Giuseppe Dinardo, Laura Fabbiano, and Gaetano Vacca
J. Sens. Sens. Syst., 8, 269–283, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-8-269-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-8-269-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
The paper deals with the proposal of a new obstruction flowmeter (cone type) characterized by an improved geometry. Compared with a standard geometry cone flowmeter, the proposed one ensures better performance in terms of a higher discharge coefficient and less permanent pressure drops. Additionally, several experimental tests and numerical simulations have been performed to compare the overall performance granted by both flowmeters, endorsing the superiority of the proposed solution.
Jan Nitsche, Rolf Kumme, and Rainer Tutsch
J. Sens. Sens. Syst., 7, 577–586, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-7-577-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-7-577-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
Multi-component sensors for force and moment are commonly used in different areas as robotics, crash tests or material testing. The dynamic behaviour of such sensors may differ significantly from the static behaviour. To analyse the dynamic characteristics, we developed an improved test set-up for periodic excitation. It consists of an electrodynamic shaker, adapting elements and different acceleration references. The first experiments show good results for periodic excitation up to 1000 Hz.
Alejandro Moreno-Rangel, Tim Sharpe, Filbert Musau, and Gráinne McGill
J. Sens. Sens. Syst., 7, 373–388, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-7-373-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-7-373-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
We compared the temperature, relative humidity, total volatile organic compounds, carbon dioxide equivalents, and fine particulate matter measurements from Foobot to highly accurate instruments. The results suggest that Foobot offers a relatively low-cost and straightforward solution for identifying high pollutant exposures with potential health risks and for providing data at high granularity. Foobot characteristics make it a useful tool to evaluate occupant pollutant exposure.
Gerry Hamdana, Maik Bertke, Lutz Doering, Thomas Frank, Uwe Brand, Hutomo Suryo Wasisto, and Erwin Peiner
J. Sens. Sens. Syst., 6, 121–133, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-6-121-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-6-121-2017, 2017
Michal Schulz, Timna Orland, Alexander Mehlmann, Avner Rothschild, and Holger Fritze
J. Sens. Sens. Syst., 6, 107–119, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-6-107-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-6-107-2017, 2017
Kerstin Schröder, Manfred Rothhardt, Wolfgang Ecke, Uwe Richter, André Sonntag, and Hartmut Bartelt
J. Sens. Sens. Syst., 6, 77–85, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-6-77-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-6-77-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
Fibre optic sensors are excellent tools for monitoring (with) high-voltage current collectors. They are easily integrated into the collector strip and specialized for detection of events like hits on the strip. The sensing system can be used in regular trains and make monitoring of the overhead contact line routine, which is done "along the way", helping not only to prevent accidents by small intruders, but also allowing the prediction of wear and is used to optimize service and repair cycles.
Franz Schubert, Michael Gollner, Jaroslaw Kita, Florian Linseis, and Ralf Moos
J. Sens. Sens. Syst., 5, 381–388, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-5-381-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-5-381-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
An FEM model is used to improve the sensor design of a Tian–Calvet calorimeter. By modifying the basic part of the sensor (a sensor disc based on low temperature co-fired ceramics), the sensitivity was increased by a factor of 3. The model was validated and the sensors were calibrated. Indium and tin samples were measured. The melting temperatures show a deviation of 0.2 K while the enthalpy was measured with a precision better than 1 %. The values for tin deviate by less than 2 % from literature.
Agnes Eydam, Gunnar Suchaneck, and Gerald Gerlach
J. Sens. Sens. Syst., 5, 165–170, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-5-165-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-5-165-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
Piezoelectric devices are characterized non-destructively to ensure their functionality. The material is heated by laser diodes. The resulting temperature changes lead to a pyroelectric current. Analytical and numerical finite element models describe the temperature distribution and the current in frequency and time domain. Modelling and experimental results are compared for piezoelectric plates and integrated sensors and actuators.
M. Klenner, T. Abels, C. Zech, A. Hülsmann, M. Schlechtweg, and O. Ambacher
J. Sens. Sens. Syst., 4, 125–131, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-4-125-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-4-125-2015, 2015
A. Dickow and G. Feiertag
J. Sens. Sens. Syst., 4, 97–102, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-4-97-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-4-97-2015, 2015
Short summary
Short summary
In this paper we present a systematic method to determine sets of close-to-optimal sensor calibration points for a polynomial approximation.For each set of calibration points a polynomial is used to fit the nonlinear sensor response to the calibration reference. The polynomial parameters are calculated using ordinary least square fit. In an experiment, barometric MEMS pressure sensors are calibrated using the proposed calibration method at several temperatures and pressures.
A. Henseleit, C. Pohl, Th. Bley, and E. Boschke
J. Sens. Sens. Syst., 4, 77–83, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-4-77-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-4-77-2015, 2015
J. C. B. Fernandes and E. V. Heinke
J. Sens. Sens. Syst., 4, 53–61, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-4-53-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-4-53-2015, 2015
Short summary
Short summary
All-solid-state reference electrodes were developed based on particles of graphite/silver/silver chloride synthesized by electroless deposition of metallic silver and silver chloride on graphite powder. These electrodes were not sensitive to abrasion, redox species, pH and high-pressure saturated steam, and were applied successfully in potentiometric cells to measure pH and potassium ions in a complex matrix by direct potentiometry and L-ascorbic acid by potentiometric titration.
S. Kishimoto, S. Akamatsu, H. Song, J. Nomoto, H. Makino, and T. Yamamoto
J. Sens. Sens. Syst., 3, 331–334, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-3-331-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-3-331-2014, 2014
A. Lorek
J. Sens. Sens. Syst., 3, 177–185, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-3-177-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-3-177-2014, 2014
T. Waber, M. Sax, W. Pahl, S. Stufler, A. Leidl, M. Günther, and G. Feiertag
J. Sens. Sens. Syst., 3, 167–175, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-3-167-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-3-167-2014, 2014
N. Orlowski, H.-G. Frede, N. Brüggemann, and L. Breuer
J. Sens. Sens. Syst., 2, 179–193, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-2-179-2013, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-2-179-2013, 2013
Cited articles
Butschbach, P., Hammer, F., Kohler, H., Potreck, A., and Trautmann, T.: Extensive
reduction of toxic gas emissions of firewood-fueled low power fireplaces by
improved in situ gas sensorics and catalytic treatment of the exhaust gas,
Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem., 137, 32–41, 2009.
Jerger, A., Kohler, H., Becker, F., Keller, H. B., and Seifert, R.: New
applications of tin oxide gas sensors – II. Intelligent sensor system for
reliable monitoring of ammonia leakages, Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem., 81, 300–307,
2002.
Kohler, H., Brunner, S., Butschbach, P., and Glesing, D.: Sensorik und Abgas-Katalyse
zur Reduktion der Emissionen von Klein-Holzfeuerungsanlagen, Konferenz
“Energetische Biomassenutzung – Neue Technologien und Konzepte
für die Bioenergie der Zukunft”, Berlin, 5. Nov. 2012, Konferenzband
Energetische Biomassenutzung, S. 80, 2013a.
Kohler, H., Potreck, A., and Trautmann, T.: Verfahren und Vorrichtung zur
Verbrennung von Brennstoffen, EP 2 066 972 B1, 2013b.
Kohler, H., Ojha, B., Illyaskutty, N., Hartmann, I., Thiel, C., Eisinger, K.,
and Dambacher, M.: Dataset supplementing Kohler et al., 2018, Zenodo,
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1189998, 2018.
Marutzky, R. and Seeger, K.: Energie aus Holz und anderer Biomasse,
DRW-Verlag, Leinfelden -Echterdingen, 1999.
Meyer, N. K.: Particulate, black carbon and organic emissions from small-scale
residential wood combustion appliances in Switzerland, Biomass Bioenerg.,
36, 31–42, 2012.
Miura, N., Sato, T., Anggraini, S., Ikeda, H., and Zhuiykov, S.: A review of
mixed-potential type zirconia-based gas sensors, Ionics, 20, 901–925, 2014.
Ojha, B., Illyaskutty, N., Knoblauch, J., Balachandran, M. R., and Kohler, H.:
High-temperature CO ∕ HC gas sensors to optimize firewood combustion in low-power fireplaces,
J. Sens. Sens. Syst., 6, 237–246, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-6-237-2017, 2017.
Tapanainen, M., Jalava, P. I., Mäki-Paakkanen, J., Hakulinen, P., Happo,
M. S., Lamberg, H., Ruusunen, J., Tissari, J., Nuutinen, K., Yli-Pirilä,
P., Hillamo, R., Salonen, R. O., Jokiniemi, J., and Hirvonen, M.-R.: In vitro
immunotoxic and genotoxic activities of particles emitted from two different
small-scale wood combustion appliances, Atmos. Environ., 45, 7546–7554,
2011.
Wienand, K., Zinkevich, M., and Ullrich, K.-H.: Gassensor zur Messung
unterschiedlicher Gase und zugehöriges Herstellungsverfahren, WO2014,
198540, A1, 2014.
Zhang, X., Kohler, H., Schwotzer, M., and Guth, U.: Mixed-Potential Gas Sensor with
Layered Au,Pt-YSZ Electrode: Investigating the sensing mechanism with steady
state and dynamic electrochemical methods, Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem., 252,
554–560, 2017.
Zhang, X., Kohler, H., Schwotzer, M., Wu, Y. H., and Guth, U.: Combined
electrochemical and structural studies of a layered Au,Pt-YSZ mixed potential
gas sensing electrode: Sensing response, dynamic electrochemical behavior and
structure properties, ACS Appl. Mater. Inter., ready for publication, 2018.
Short summary
Wood-log- and wood-chip-fuelled low-power combustion systems emit high amounts of uncombusted gaseous components like CO and particulate matter. Emissions can be effectively reduced by optimized combustion process control using high-temperature gas sensors. The sensing behaviour of gas sensors for continuous analysis of uncombusted components and their long-term stability have been studied. The sensor signals are used to improve the combustion process control and to monitor combustion quality.
Wood-log- and wood-chip-fuelled low-power combustion systems emit high amounts of uncombusted...
Special issue